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The Levellers’ ideas sound remarkably contemporary, often surprising us with their enduring relevance. However, interpretations of both the Levellers and the English Civil War vary. Some historians characterize the conflict as the last of the religious wars, while others view it as a political revolution. Since 1975, the annual Burford Levellers’ Day has been observed.…

Today, we will examine the political theory of the Huguenots—a distinct group of French Protestants—and trace their evolution against the backdrop of turbulent historical events. “The Lutheran theory of resistance, as it developed from 1530 to 1550, remains primarily religious in nature. Neither tries to make an appeal across religious boundaries for support in resistance…

Many historians describe the 17th century as the era of absolutism, particularly in France. During this period, European parliaments lost significant influence, especially in matters of taxation. In France, the Estates General ceased to meet after 1615, weakening the principle that taxation required consent. By 1673, the Parliament of Paris lost the right to oppose…

“God, having made man such a creature that, in His own judgment, it was not good for him to be alone, placed him under strong obligations of necessity, convenience, and natural inclination to draw him into society. Moreover, He endowed him with reason and language, enabling him to maintain and enjoy that society.” (Second Treatise,…

It is unnecessary to demonstrate at length the scale of Locke’s reputation or the ambiguity of his heritage. As John Dunn puts it: “He was the man in whose name the American Revolution was made, the man whose doctrine in his own lifetime was seen as the indictment of the British ascendancy in Ireland, the…

During the Middle Ages, people viewed the Church as superior to the State, believing it held authority directly from God. According to the doctrine of the “Two Swords,” the Church wielded spiritual power even over rulers, who governed worldly matters but remained subordinate in matters of faith and morality. The Pope could crown or excommunicate…

During the Reformation, conceptions of secular authority and obedience underwent profound transformation. Martin Luther’s early position emphasized absolute obedience to rulers as divinely ordained. However, this stance evolved, especially in response to political and theological crises. Over time, it led to the idea that rulers who violated divine or natural law lost their legitimacy. Among…

One more thing comes to mind. Quentin Skinner once noted that the 17th century, particularly the period from 1640 to 1650, was a critical time for the development of modern political theory. The key authors we will discuss today are Thomas Hobbes, with his work Leviathan (1651), and John Locke, with Two Treatises of Government…

During the Scientific Revolution, traditional views of human nature underwent a radical transformation. Thinkers like Francis Bacon and René Descartes introduced a more materialistic and mechanistic understanding of what it means to be human, moving away from religious and metaphysical frameworks. Thinkers began to view humans as part of the natural world, functioning according to…